Latest Articles Include:
- Glycoimmunology: ignore at your peril!
- Immunol Rev 230(1):5-8 (2009)
- Mannose-binding lectin and innate immunity
- Immunol Rev 230(1):9-21 (2009)
Summary: Innate immunity is the earliest response to invading microbes and acts to contain infection in the first minutes to hours of challenge. Unlike adaptive immunity that relies upon clonal expansion of cells that emerge days after antigenic challenge, the innate immune response is immediate. Soluble mediators, including complement components and the mannose binding lectin (MBL) make an important contribution to innate immune protection and work along with epithelial barriers, cellular defenses such as phagocytosis, and pattern-recognition receptors that trigger pro-inflammatory signaling cascades. These four aspects of the innate immune system act in concert to protect from pathogen invasion. Our work has focused on understanding the protection provided by this complex defense system and, as discussed in this review, the particular contribution of soluble mediators such as MBL and phagocytic cells. Over the past two decades both human epidemiological data and mous! e models have indicated that MBL plays a critical role in innate immune protection against a number of pathogens. As demonstrated by our recent in vitro work, we show that MBL and the innate immune signaling triggered by the canonical pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs), the Toll-like receptors (TLRs), are linked by their spatial localization to the phagosome. These observations demonstrated a novel role for MBL as a TLR co-receptor and establishes a new paradigm for the role of opsonins, which we propose to function not only to increase microbial uptake but also to spatially coordinate, amplify, and synchronize innate immune defenses mechanism. In this review we discuss both the attributes of MBL that make it a unique soluble pattern recognition molecule and also highlight its broader role in coordinating innate immune activation. - Endogenous ligands for C-type lectin receptors: the true regulators of immune homeostasis
- Immunol Rev 230(1):22-37 (2009)
Summary: C-type lectin receptors (CLRs) have long been known as pattern-recognition receptors implicated in the recognition of pathogens by the innate immune system. However, evidence is accumulating that many CLRs are also able to recognize endogenous 'self' ligands and that this recognition event often plays an important role in immune homeostasis. In the present review, we focus on the human and mouse CLRs for which endogenous ligands have been described. Special attention is given to the signaling events initiated upon recognition of the self ligand and the regulation of glycosylation as a switch modulating CLR recognition, and therefore, immune homeostasis. - -glucan recognition by the innate immune system
- Immunol Rev 230(1):38-50 (2009)
Summary: β-glucans are recognized by the innate immune system. This recognition plays important roles in host defense and presents specific opportunities for clinical modulation of the host immune response. Neutrophils, macrophages, and dendritic cells among others express several receptors capable of recognizing β-glucan in its various forms. This review explores what is currently known about β-glucan recognition and how this recognition stimulates immune responses. Special emphasis is placed on Dectin-1, as we know the most about how this key β-glucan receptor translates recognition into intracellular signaling, stimulates cellular responses, and participates in orchestrating the adaptive immune response. - Glycosyltransferase-programmed stereosubstitution (GPS) to create HCELL: engineering a roadmap for cell migration
- Immunol Rev 230(1):51-74 (2009)
Summary: During evolution of the vertebrate cardiovascular system, the vast endothelial surface area associated with branching vascular networks mandated the development of molecular processes to efficiently and specifically recruit circulating sentinel host defense cells and tissue repair cells at localized sites of inflammation/tissue injury. The forces engendered by high-velocity blood flow commensurately required the evolution of specialized cell surface molecules capable of mediating shear-resistant endothelial adhesive interactions, thus literally capturing relevant cells from the blood stream onto the target endothelial surface and permitting subsequent extravasation. The principal effectors of these shear-resistant binding interactions comprise a family of C-type lectins known as 'selectins' that bind discrete sialofucosylated glycans on their respective ligands. This review explains the 'intelligent design' of requisite reagents to convert native CD44 into the! sialofucosylated glycoform known as hematopoietic cell E-/L-selectin ligand (HCELL), the most potent E-selectin counter-receptor expressed on human cells, and will describe how ex vivo glycan engineering of HCELL expression may open the 'avenues' for the efficient vascular delivery of cells for a variety of cell therapies. - PSGL-1 function in immunity and steady state homeostasis
- Immunol Rev 230(1):75-96 (2009)
Summary: The substantial importance of P-selectin glycoprotein ligand 1 (PSGL-1) in leukocyte trafficking has continued to emerge beyond its initial identification as a selectin ligand. PSGL-1 seemed to be a relatively simple molecule with an extracellular mucin domain extended as a flexible rod, teleologically consistent with its primary role in tethering leukocytes to endothelial selectins. The rolling interaction between leukocyte and endothelium mediated by this selectin-PSGL-1 interaction requires branched O-glycan extensions on specific PSGL-1 amino acid residues. In some cells, such as neutrophils, the glycosyltransferases involved in formation of the O-glycans are constitutively expressed, while in other cells, such as T cells, they are expressed only after appropriate activation. Thus, PSGL-1 supports leukocyte recruitment in both innate and adaptive arms of the immune response. A complex array of amino acids within the selectins engage multiple sugar residues! of the branched O-glycans on PSGL-1 and provide the molecular interactions responsible for the velcro-like catch bonds that support leukocyte rolling. Such binding of PSGL-1 can also induce signaling events that influence cell phenotype and function. Scrutiny of PSGL-1 has revealed a better understanding of how it performs as a selectin ligand and yielded unexpected insights that extend its scope from supporting leukocyte rolling in inflammatory settings to homeostasis including stem cell homing to the thymus and mature T-cell homing to secondary lymphoid organs. PSGL-1 has been found to bind homeostatic chemokines CCL19 and CCL21 and to support the chemotactic response to these chemokines. Surprisingly, the O-glycan modifications of PSGL-1 that support rolling mediated by selectins in inflammatory conditions interfere with PSGL-1 binding to homeostatic chemokines and thereby limit responsiveness to the chemotactic cues used in steady state T-cell traffic. The multi-level ! influence of PSGL-1 on cell traffic in both inflammatory and s! teady state settings is therefore substantially determined by the orchestrated addition of O-glycans. However, central as specific O-glycosylation is to PSGL-1 function, in vivo regulation of PSGL-1 glycosylation in T cells remains poorly understood. It is our purpose herein to review what is known, and not known, of PSGL-1 glycosylation and to update understanding of PSGL-1 functional scope. - Glycosylation in immune cell trafficking
- Immunol Rev 230(1):97-113 (2009)
Summary: Leukocyte recruitment encompasses cell adhesion and activation steps that enable circulating leukocytes to roll, arrest, and firmly adhere on the endothelial surface before they extravasate into distinct tissue locations. This complex sequence of events relies on adhesive interactions between surface structures on leukocytes and endothelial cells and also on signals generated during the cell–cell contacts. Cell surface glycans play a crucial role in leukocyte recruitment. Several glycosyltransferases such as α1,3 fucosyltransferases, α2,3 sialyltransferases, core 2 N-acetylglucosaminlytransferases, β1,4 galactosyltransferases, and polypeptide N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferases have been implicated in the generation of functional selectin ligands that mediate leukocyte rolling via binding to selectins. Recent evidence also suggests a role of α2,3 sialylated carbohydrate determinants in triggering chemokine-mediated leukocyte arrest and influencing β1 int! egrin function. The recent discovery of galectin- and siglec-dependent processes further emphasizes the significant role of glycans for the successful recruitment of leukocytes into tissues. Advancing the knowledge on glycan function into appropriate pathology models is likely to suggest interesting new therapeutic strategies in the treatment of immune- and inflammation-mediated diseases. - Galectin-3 regulates T-cell functions
- Immunol Rev 230(1):114-127 (2009)
Summary: Galectin-3 is absent in resting CD4+ and CD8+ T cells but is inducible by various stimuli. These include viral transactivating factors, T-cell receptor (TCR) ligation, and calcium ionophores. In addition, galectin-3 is constitutively expressed in human regulatory T cells and CD4+ memory T cells. Galectin-3 exerts extracellular functions because of its lectin activity and recognition of cell surface and extracellular matrix glycans. These include cell activation, adhesion, induction of apoptosis, and formation of lattices with cell surface glycoprotein receptors. Formation of lattices can result in restriction of receptor mobility and cause attenuation of receptor functions. Consistent with the presence of galectin-3 in intracellular locations, several functions have been described for this protein inside T cells. These include inhibition of apoptosis, promotion of cell growth, and regulation of TCR signal transduction. Studies of cell surface glycosylation hav! e led to convergence of glycobiology and galectin biology and provided new clues on how galectin-3 may participate in the regulation of cell surface receptor activities. The rapid expansion of the field of galectin research has positioned galectin-3 as a key regulator in T-cell functions. - CD22 and Siglec-G: B-cell inhibitory receptors with distinct functions
- Immunol Rev 230(1):128-143 (2009)
Summary: Siglecs (sialic acid-binding immunoglobulin-like lectins) are sialic acid-binding proteins, which are expressed on many cell types of the immune system. B cells express two members of the Siglec family, CD22 (Siglec-2) and Siglec-G, both of which have been shown to inhibit B-cell signaling. CD22 recruits the tyrosine phosphatase Src homology 2 domain-containing phosphatase 1 (SHP-1) to immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motifs (ITIMs) and inhibits B-cell receptor (BCR)-induced Ca2+ signaling on normal B cells. CD22 interacts specifically with ligands carrying α2–6-linked sialic acids. Interaction with these ligands in cis regulates the association of CD22 with the BCR and thereby modulates the inhibitory function of CD22. Interaction of CD22 to ligands in trans can regulate both B-cell migration as well as the BCR signaling threshold. Siglec-G is a recently identified protein with an inhibitory function restricted to a B-cell subset, the B1 cells. Sig! lec-G inhibits Ca2+ signaling specifically in these cells. In addition, it controls the cellular expansion and antibody secretion of B1 cells. Thus, both Siglecs modulate BCR signaling on different B-cell populations in a mutually exclusive fashion. - Conveying glycan information into T-cell homeostatic programs: a challenging role for galectin-1 in inflammatory and tumor microenvironments
- Immunol Rev 230(1):144-159 (2009)
Summary: The immune system has evolved sophisticated mechanisms composed of several checkpoints and fail-safe processes that enable it to orchestrate innate and adaptive immunity, while at the same time limiting aberrant or unfaithful T-cell function. These multiple regulatory pathways take place during the entire life-span of T cells including T-cell development, homing, activation, and differentiation. Galectin-1, an endogenous glycan-binding protein widely expressed at sites of inflammation and tumor growth, controls a diversity of immune cell processes, acting either extracellularly through specific binding to cell surface glycan structures or intracellularly through modulation of pathways that remain largely unexplored. In this review, we highlight the discoveries that have led to our current understanding of the role of galectin-1 in distinct immune cell process, particularly those associated with T-cell homeostasis. Also, we emphasize findings emerging from the ! study of experimental models of autoimmunity, chronic inflammation, fetomaternal tolerance, and tumor growth, which have provided fundamental insights into the critical role of galectin-1 and its specific saccharide ligands in immunoregulation. Challenges for the future will embrace the rational manipulation of galectin-1-glycan interactions both towards attenuating immune responses in autoimmune diseases, graft rejection, and recurrent fetal loss, while at the same overcoming immune tolerance in chronic infections and cancer. - The regulation of inflammation by galectin-3
- Immunol Rev 230(1):160-171 (2009)
Summary: Galectin-3 is a β-galactoside-binding animal lectin of appro- ximately 30 kDa and is evolutionarily highly conserved. Galectin-3 is promiscuous, its localization within the tissue micro-environment may be extracellular, cytoplasmic, or nuclear, and it has a concentration-dependent ability to be monomeric or form oligomers. These properties impart great flexibility on galectin-3 as a specific regulator of many biological systems including inflammation. For example, in acute tissue damage galectin-3 is a key component in the host defense against microbes such as Streptococcus pneumoniae. However, if tissue injury becomes repetitive galectin-3 also appears to be intimately involved in the transition to chronic inflammation, facilitating the walling off of tissue injury with fibrogenesis and organ scarring. Therefore galectin-3 can be viewed as a regulatory molecule acting at various stages along the continuum from acute inflammation to chronic inflammation and t! issue fibrogenesis. In this review, we examine the role of galectin-3 in inflammation, and discuss the manipulation of galectin-3 expression as a potentially novel therapeutic strategy in the treatment of a broad range of inflammatory diseases. - Galectins in innate immunity: dual functions of host soluble -galactoside-binding lectins as damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) and as receptors for pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs)
- Immunol Rev 230(1):172-187 (2009)
Summary: The glycocalyx is a glycan layer found on the surfaces of host cells as well as microorganisms and enveloped virus. Its thickness may easily exceed 50 nm. The glycocalyx does not only serve as a physical protective barrier but also contains various structurally different glycans, which provide cell- or microorganism-specific 'glycoinformation'. This information is decoded by host glycan-binding proteins, lectins. The roles of lectins in innate immunity are well established, as exemplified by collectins, dectin-1, and dendritic cell (DC)-specific intracellular adhesion molecule-3-grabbing non-integrin (DC-SIGN). These mammalian lectins are synthesized in the secretory pathway and presented on the cell surface to bind to specific glycan 'epitopes'. As they recognize non-self glycans presented by microorganisms, they can be considered as receptors for pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), i.e. pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). One notable exception ! is the galectin family. Galectins are synthesized and stored in the cytoplasm, but upon infection-initiated tissue damage and/or following prolonged infection, cytosolic galectins are either passively released by dying cells or actively secreted by inflammatory activated cells through a non-classical pathway, the 'leaderless' secretory pathway. Once exported, galectins act as PRR, as well as immunomodulators (or cytokine-like modulators) in the innate response to some infectious diseases. As galectins are dominantly found in the lesions where pathogen-initiated tissue damage signals appear, this lectin family is also considered as potential damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMP) candidates that orchestrate innate immune responses alongside the PAMP system. - Carbohydrate specificity of the recognition of diverse glycolipids by natural killer T cells
- Immunol Rev 230(1):188-200 (2009)
Summary: Most T lymphocytes recognize peptide antigens bound to or presented by molecules encoded in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). The CD1 family of antigen-presenting molecules is related to the MHC-encoded molecules, but CD1 proteins present lipid antigens, mostly glycolipids. Here we review T-lymphocyte recognition of glycolipids, with particular emphasis on the subpopulation known as natural killer T (NKT) cells. NKT cells influence many immune responses, they have a T-cell antigen receptor (TCR) that is restricted in diversity, and they share properties with cells of the innate immune system. NKT cells recognize antigens presented by CD1d with hexose sugars in α-linkage to lipids, although other, related antigens are known. The hydrophobic alkyl chains are buried in the CD1d groove, with the carbohydrate exposed for TCR recognition, together with the surface of the CD1d molecule. Therefore, understanding the biochemical basis for antigen recognition! by NKT cells requires an understanding of how the trimolecular complex of CD1d, glycolipid, and the TCR is formed, which is in part a problem of carbohydrate recognition by the TCR. Recent investigations from our laboratories as well as studies from other groups have provided important information on the structural basis for NKT-cell specificity. - Regulation of Notch signaling during T- and B-cell development by O-fucose glycans
- Immunol Rev 230(1):201-215 (2009)
Summary: Notch signaling is required for the development of all T cells and marginal zone (MZ) B cells. Specific roles in T- and B-cell differentiation have been identified for different Notch receptors, the canonical Delta-like (Dll) and Jagged (Jag) Notch ligands, and downstream effectors of Notch signaling. Notch receptors and ligands are post-translationally modified by the addition of glycans to extracellular domain epidermal growth factor-like (EGF) repeats. The O-fucose glycans of Notch cell-autonomously modulate Notch–ligand interactions and the strength of Notch signaling. These glycans are initiated by protein O-fucosyltransferase 1 (Pofut1), and elongated by the transfer of N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) to the fucose by β1,3GlcNAc-transferases termed lunatic, manic, or radical fringe. This review discusses T- and B-cell development from progenitors deficient in O-fucose glycans. The combined data show that Lfng and Mfng regulate T-cell development by enhan! cing the interactions of Notch1 in T-cell progenitors with Dll4 on thymic epithelial cells. In the spleen, Lfng and Mfng cooperate to modify Notch2 in MZ B progenitors, enhancing their interaction with Dll1 on endothelial cells and regulating MZ B-cell production. Removal of O-fucose affects Notch signaling in myelopoiesis and lymphopoiesis, and the O-fucose glycan in the Notch1 ligand-binding domain is required for optimal T-cell development. - Immunological functions of hyaluronan and its receptors in the lymphatics
- Immunol Rev 230(1):216-231 (2009)
Summary: The lymphatic system is best known for draining interstitial fluid from the tissues and returning it to the blood circulation. However, the lymphatic system also provides the means for immune surveillance in the immune system, acting as conduits that convey soluble antigens and antigen-presenting cells from the tissues to the lymph nodes, where primary lymphocyte responses are generated. One macromolecule that potentially unites these two functions is the large extracellular matrix glycosaminoglycan hyaluronan (HA), a chemically simple copolymer of GlcNAc and GlcUA that fulfills a diversity of functions from danger signal to adhesive substratum, depending upon chain length and particular interaction with its many different binding proteins and a small but important group of receptors. The two most abundant of these receptors are CD44, which is expressed on leukocytes that traffic through the lymphatics, and LYVE-1, which is expressed almost exclusively on lymp! hatic endothelium. Curiously, much of the HA within the tissues is turned over and degraded in lymph nodes, by a poorly understood process that occurs in the medullary sinuses. Indeed there are several mysterious aspects to HA in the lymphatics. Here we cover some of these by reviewing recent findings in the biology of lymphatic endothelial cells and their possible roles in HA homeostasis together with fresh insights into the complex and enigmatic nature of LYVE-1, its regulation of HA binding by sialylation and self-association, and its potential function in leukocyte trafficking. - T-cell growth, cell surface organization, and the galectin–glycoprotein lattice
- Immunol Rev 230(1):232-246 (2009)
Summary: Basal, activation, and arrest signaling in T cells determines survival, coordinates responses to pathogens, and, when dysregulated, leads to loss of self-tolerance and autoimmunity. At the T-cell surface, transmembrane glycoproteins interact with galectins via their N-glycans, forming a molecular lattice that regulates membrane localization, clustering, and endocytosis of surface receptors. Galectin–T-cell receptor (TCR) binding prevents ligand-independent TCR signaling via Lck by blocking spontaneous clustering and CD4-Lck recruitment to TCR, and in turn F-actin transfer of TCR/CD4-Lck complexes to membrane microdomains. Peptide–major histocompatibility complexes overcome galectin–TCR binding to promote TCR clustering and signaling by Lck at the immune synapse. Galectin also localizes the tyrosine phosphatase CD45 to microdomains and the immune synapse, suppressing basal and activation signaling by Lck. Following activation, membrane turnover increases ! and galectin binding to cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) enhances surface expression by inhibiting endocytosis, thereby promoting growth arrest. Galectins bind surface glycoproteins in proportion to the branching and number of N-glycans per protein, the latter an encoded feature of protein sequence. N-glycan branching is conditional to the activity of Golgi N-acetylglucosaminyl transferases I, II, IV and V (Mgat1, 2, 4, and 5) and metabolic supply of their donor substrate UDP-GlcNAc. Genetic and metabolic control of N-glycan branching co-regulate homeostatic set-points for basal, activation, and arrest signaling in T cells and, when disturbed, result in T-cell hyperactivity and autoimmunity. - Modulation of host immune responses by helminth glycans
- Immunol Rev 230(1):247-257 (2009)
Summary: Parasitic infections regulate/alter host immune responses. Among parasitic infections, helminth infection often leads to systemic immune suppression or anergy. Helminth infection or helminth extracts drive CD4+ T-helper (Th) cell responses towards Th2 type and activate antigen-presenting cells (APCs) such that these cells express an anti-inflammatory phenotype. Among the myriad molecules present on or secreted by helminth parasites, glycans have been shown to be key in inducing Th2-type and anti-inflammatory immune responses. The majority of studies on immune modulatory helminth glycans have focused on Lacto-N-fucopentaose III and LewisX. When presented as glycol-conjugates, with multiple copies of the sugars conjugated to a carrier molecule, these compounds activate APCs, inducing an alternative activation pattern, whose phenotypic profile is substantially different than that seen using pro-inflammatory activators such as lipopolysaccharide. Though the mechan! ism of APC activation by LNFPIII/LewisX glycoconjugates has not been fully elucidated, it involves C-type lectin ligation on the surface of APCs, with subsequent antagonism of Toll-like receptor signaling. In this article, we discuss the APC surface receptors known to play roles in LNFPIII/LewisX induced alternative activation of APCs. We also discuss what is currently known regarding downstream signaling pathways, closing with a discussion of future research directions for this field of investigation including the potential use of immune modulatory glycans as vaccine adjuvants and anti-inflammatory therapeutics.
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