Hot off the presses! May 01 Nature Reviews Neuroscience

The May 01 issue of the Nature Reviews Neuroscience is now up on Pubget (About Nature Reviews Neuroscience): if you're at a subscribing institution, just click the link in the latest link at the home page. (Note you'll only be able to get all the PDFs in the issue if your institution subscribes to Pubget.)

Latest Articles Include:

• From the editors
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(5):293 (2010)
  In keeping with the spring season, this issue contains a number of articles about neuron birth and development.The generation of neurons from neural stem cells involves many steps, each of which is regulated by multiple intrinsic and extrinsic factors.
• Neuron–glia interactions: Do they or don't they?
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(5):295 (2010)
  The proposal that astrocytes modulate neuronal function by releasing neurotransmitters in a Ca2+-dependent manner suggests the possibility of an added layer of information processing in the brain. However, this idea has been highly controversial.
• Learning and memory: It's all in the timing
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(5):296 (2010)
  Theta oscillations occur in the hippocampus during periods of learning and are thought to support synaptic plasticity and memory formation. However, it was not understood how these oscillations relate to single-neuron activity in response to a stimulus and to the formation of a memory of that stimulus.
• In brief: Learning and memory, Epigenetics, Neurodegenerative disease, Development
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(5):296 (2010)
  Methylphenidate facilitates learning-induced amygdala plasticity Tye , K. M.et al. Nature Neurosci. 13, 475–481 (2010)
• Neurotransmission: Playing tag!
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(5):297 (2010)
  The ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) has been implicated in modulating presynaptic and postsynaptic physiology by protein degradation. Rinetti and Schweizer now show that the dynamic ubiquitlyation of presynaptic proteins also regulates synaptic transmission independently of degradation by the UPS.
• Neurodegenerative diseases: Microglia's little helper
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(5):297 (2010)
  The locus coeruleus is the major source of noradrenaline in the brain, and its degeneration in Alzheimer's disease is closely associated with the progression of symptoms. It has recently been shown that noradrenergic transmission can decrease amyloid-β (Aβ) deposition, but how it achieves this effect was unclear.
• Neurodevelopmental disorders: Mechanistic insights into Angelman's syndrome
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(5):298 (2010)
  Angelman's syndrome is a neurological disorder that causes motor dysfunction, severe mental retardation and autistic behaviour. Most cases of the syndrome are associated with mutations in the maternal copy of the gene encoding ubiquitin protein ligase E3A (UBE3A), but how this gene contributes to normal nervous system development is unclear.
• Small RNAs: Unwrapping glial differentiation
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(5):298 (2010)
  Oligodendrocytes — specialized glia that wrap neuronal axons with myelin — develop from rapidly proliferating oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs). Two papers in Neuron reveal that microRNAs (miRNAs) in maturing OPCs have a key role in the post-transcriptional repression of genes involved in OPC proliferation and thus in the promotion of oligodendrocyte differentiation.
• Synaptic plasticity: An appetite for learning
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(5):298 (2010)
  The hormone leptin is well known for its role in energy homeostasis, but it has also been found to influence synaptic plasticity. Investigating the mechanisms that underlie this function, Moult et al.GluR1) expression at hippocampal synapses and increases synaptic strength by inhibiting the protein phosphatase and tensin homologue (PTEN).
• In brief: Development, Neurodegenerative disease, Memory, Neuroprotection
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(5):299 (2010)
  PHOX2A regulation of oculomotor complex nucleogenesis Hasan , K. B.et al. Development 137, 1205–1213 (2010)
• Emerging roles for G protein-gated inwardly rectifying potassium (GIRK) channels in health and disease
  Lüscher C Slesinger PA - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(5):301 (2010)
  G protein-gated inwardly rectifying potassium (GIRK) channels hyperpolarize neurons in response to activation of many different G protein-coupled receptors and thus control the excitability of neurons through GIRK-mediated self-inhibition, slow synaptic potentials and volume transmission. GIRK channel function and trafficking are highly dependent on the channel subunit composition. Pharmacological investigations of GIRK channels and studies in animal models suggest that GIRK activity has an important role in physiological responses, including pain perception and memory modulation. Moreover, abnormal GIRK function has been implicated in altering neuronal excitability and cell death, which may be important in the pathophysiology of diseases such as epilepsy, Down's syndrome, Parkinson's disease and drug addiction. GIRK channels may therefore prove to be a valuable new therapeutic target.
• Branching out: mechanisms of dendritic arborization
  Jan YN Jan LY - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(5):316 (2010)
  Type-specific dendrite morphology is a hallmark of the neuron and has important functional implications in determining what signals a neuron receives and how these signals are integrated. During the past two decades, studies on dendritic arborization neurons in Drosophila melanogaster have started to identify mechanisms of dendrite morphogenesis that may have broad applicability to vertebrate species. Transcription factors, receptor–ligand interactions, various signalling pathways, local translational machinery, cytoskeletal elements, Golgi outposts and endosomes have been identified as contributors to the organization of dendrites of individual neurons and the placement of these dendrites in the neuronal circuitry. Further insight into these mechanisms will improve our understanding of how the nervous system functions and might help to identify the underlying causes of some neurological and neurodevelopmental disorders.
• Roles of small regulatory RNAs in determining neuronal identity
  Li X Jin P - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(5):329 (2010)
  Neurogenesis, the process of generating functional neurons from neural stem cells, is tightly controlled by many intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms. Uncovering these regulatory mechanisms is crucial for understanding the functions and plasticity of the human brain. Recent studies in both invertebrates and vertebrates point to the importance of small regulatory RNAs in regulating lineage-specific gene expression and determining neuronal identity during neurogenesis. These new observations suggest that small regulatory RNAs could function at many levels to regulate self-renewal of neural stem cells and neuronal fate specification, implicating small regulatory RNAs in the complexity of neurogenesis.
• New neurons and new memories: how does adult hippocampal neurogenesis affect learning and memory?
  Deng W Aimone JB Gage FH - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(5):339 (2010)
  The integration of adult-born neurons into the circuitry of the adult hippocampus suggests an important role for adult hippocampal neurogenesis in learning and memory, but its specific function in these processes has remained elusive. In this article, we summarize recent progress in this area, including advances based on behavioural studies and insights provided by computational modelling. Increasingly, evidence suggests that newborn neurons might be involved in hippocampal functions that are particularly dependent on the dentate gyrus, such as pattern separation. Furthermore, newborn neurons at different maturation stages may make distinct contributions to learning and memory. In particular, computational studies suggest that, before newborn neurons are fully mature, they might function as a pattern integrator by introducing a degree of similarity to the encoding of events that occur closely in time.
• Active perception: sensorimotor circuits as a cortical basis for language
  Pulvermüller F Fadiga L - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(5):351 (2010)
  Action and perception are functionally linked in the brain, but a hotly debated question is whether perception and comprehension of stimuli depend on motor circuits. Brain language mechanisms are ideal for addressing this question. Neuroimaging investigations have found specific motor activations when subjects understand speech sounds, word meanings and sentence structures. Moreover, studies involving transcranial magnetic stimulation and patients with lesions affecting inferior frontal regions of the brain have shown contributions of motor circuits to the comprehension of phonemes, semantic categories and grammar. These data show that language comprehension benefits from frontocentral action systems, indicating that action and perception circuits are interdependent.
• Correspondence: Beyond IQ comparisons: intra-individual training differences
  Houdé O - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(5):370 (2010)
  As stated by Deary, Penke and Johnson in their recent article (The neuroscience of human intelligence differences. Nature Rev. Neurosci. 11, 201–211 (2010)

Hot off the presses! Mar 01

The Mar 01 issue of the is now up on Pubget (About ): if you're at a subscribing institution, just click the link in the latest link at the home page. (Note you'll only be able to get all the PDFs in the issue if your institution subscribes to Pubget.)

Latest Articles Include:

• From the editors
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(3):147 (2010)
  This issue of Nature Reviews Neuroscience contains several articles about aspects of the transmission of information and disease in the nervous system.In his Review on page 188, Benjamin Kaupp compares and contrasts the chemosensory receptors and signalling mechanisms involved in olfaction in vertebrates and insects.
• Neural circuits: Out of synch
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(3):149 (2010)
  Previous studies have shown correlated spiking activity within local populations of cortical neurons, an effect thought to arise as a result of shared inputs to the neurons. However, two new papers suggest that correlations in firing between neighbouring neurons may be much weaker than was thought.
• Neurological disorders: Striking point for stroke
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(3):150 (2010)
  Glutamate toxicity as a result of excessive NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) receptor activation is considered the main factor responsible for neuronal death following ischaemia. However, the essential physiological action of these receptors in synaptic transmission means that simply blocking them is not a feasible therapeutic option.
• In brief: Neuronal plasticity, Spatial awareness, Axon Growth, Motor Systems
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(3):150 (2010)
  Direct conversion of fibroblasts to functional neurons by defined factors Vierbuchen , T.et al. Nature27 January 2010 (doi:10.1038/nature08797)
• Prions: A protective role for prions
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(3):151 (2010)
  Mutated forms of PrPC, the endogenous prion protein, are linked to transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, but the normal function of PrPC has yet to be identified. Bremer et al.C is necessary for the maintenance of the myelin sheaths around peripheral nerves.
• Sensory processing: Sensing motion with tact
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(3):151 (2010)
  When we handle an object, the relative movement between its surface and our skin provides the brain with valuable information about its characteristics. The existence of a subpopulation of neurons in the visual cortex that responds specifically to the direction of movement of a visual stimulus is widely known, but it remains unclear whether the perception of tactile motion relies on an analogous mechanism.
• Affective disorders: A faster way to happiness
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(3):152 (2010)
  Most antidepressants that are currently available take several weeks to exert their effects, and clinical evidence has suggested co-administration of an antagonist of α2-adrenoceptors as a potential strategy to overcome this drawback. However, the mechanisms by which blockade of these receptors accelerates the improvements in mood are still largely unknown.
• Techniques: Zebrafish behaviour in profile
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(3):152 (2010)
  The complexity of brain function makes it difficult to develop simple high-throughput screens to identify drugs that can target nervous system disorders. Two studies have now addressed this problem by using zebrafish larvae to screen for drugs that affect particular behaviours.
• Neuron–glia interactions: With a little help from glia
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(3):152 (2010)
  Whether glia cells are involved in the induction of long-term potentiation (LTP) — a form of synaptic plasticity — in vivo remains controversial. Rusakov and colleagues now show that Ca2+-dependent D-serine release from astrocytes regulates NMDAR (N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor)-dependent synaptic plasticity in acute hippocampal slice preparations from adult rats, providing evidence for such an involvement.
• In brief: Development, Memory, Stress, Neurodegenerative diseases
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(3):153 (2010)
  Local and long-range reciprocal regulation of cAMP and cGMP in axon/dendrite formation Shelley , M.et al. Science 327, 547–552 (2010)How do undifferentiated neurites develop to produce one axon and multiple dendrites per neuron?
• Prion-like mechanisms in neurodegenerative diseases
  Frost B Diamond MI - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(3):155 (2010)
  Many non-infectious neurodegenerative diseases are associated with the accumulation of fibrillar proteins. These diseases all exhibit features that are reminiscent of those of prionopathies, including phenotypic diversity and the propagation of pathology. Furthermore, emerging studies of amyloid-β, α-synuclein and tau — proteins implicated in common neurodegenerative diseases — suggest that they share key biophysical and biochemical characteristics with prions. Propagation of protein misfolding in these diseases may therefore occur through mechanisms similar to those that underlie prion pathogenesis. If this hypothesis is verified in vivo, it will suggest new therapeutic strategies to block propagation of protein misfolding throughout the brain.
• Protein palmitoylation in neuronal development and synaptic plasticity
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(3):161 (2010)
  Protein palmitoylation, a classical and common lipid modification, regulates diverse aspects of neuronal protein trafficking and function. The reversible nature of palmitoylation provides a potential general mechanism for protein shuttling between intracellular compartments. The recent discovery of palmitoylating enzymes — a large DHHC (Asp-His-His-Cys) protein family — and the development of new proteomic and imaging methods have accelerated palmitoylation analysis. It is becoming clear that individual DHHC enzymes generate and maintain the specialized compartmentalization of substrates in polarized neurons. Here, we discuss the regulatory mechanisms for dynamic protein palmitoylation and the emerging roles of protein palmitoylation in various aspects of pathophysiology, including neuronal development and synaptic plasticity.
• Neural stem cell systems: physiological players or in vitro entities?
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(3):176 (2010)
  Neural stem cells (NSCs) can be experimentally derived or induced from different sources, and the NSC systems generated so far are promising tools for basic research and biomedical applications. However, no direct and thorough comparison of their biological and molecular properties or of their physiological relevance and possible relationship to endogenous NSCs has yet been carried out. Here we review the available information on different NSC systems and compare their properties. A better understanding of these systems will be crucial to control NSC fate and functional integration following transplantation and to make NSCs suitable for regenerative efforts following injury or disease.
• Olfactory signalling in vertebrates and insects: differences and commonalities
  Kaupp UB - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(3):188 (2010)
  Vertebrates and insects have evolved complex repertoires of chemosensory receptors to detect and distinguish odours. With a few exceptions, vertebrate chemosensory receptors belong to the family of G protein-coupled receptors that initiate a cascade of cellular signalling events and thereby electrically excite the neuron. Insect receptors, which are structurally and genetically unrelated to vertebrate receptors, are a complex of two distinct molecules that serves both as a receptor for the odorant and as an ion channel that is gated by binding of the odorant. Metabotropic signalling in vertebrates provides a rich panoply of positive and negative regulation, whereas ionotropic signalling in insects enhances processing speed.
• The neuroscience of human intelligence differences
  Deary IJ Penke L Johnson W - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(3):201 (2010)
  Neuroscience is contributing to an understanding of the biological bases of human intelligence differences. This work is principally being conducted along two empirical fronts: genetics — quantitative and molecular — and brain imaging. Quantitative genetic studies have established that there are additive genetic contributions to different aspects of cognitive ability — especially general intelligence — and how they change through the lifespan. Molecular genetic studies have yet to identify reliably reproducible contributions from individual genes. Structural and functional brain-imaging studies have identified differences in brain pathways, especially parieto-frontal pathways, that contribute to intelligence differences. There is also evidence that brain efficiency correlates positively with intelligence.
• Chemosensory organs as models of neuronal synapses
  Shaham S - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(3):212 (2010)
  Neuronal synapses are important microstructures that underlie complex cognitive capacities. Recent studies, primarily in Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster, have revealed surprising parallels between these synapses and the 'chemosensory synapses' that reside at the tips of chemosensory cells that respond to environmental stimuli. Similarities in the structures, mechanisms of action and specific molecules found at these sites extend to the presynaptic, postsynaptic and glial entities composing both synapse types. In this article I propose that chemosensory synapses may serve as useful models of neuronal synapses, and consider the possibility that the two synapse types derive from a common ancestral structure.
• Correspondence: Overnight alchemy: sleep-dependent memory evolution
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(3):218 (2010)
  Diekelmann and Born offer an elegant and convincing overview of evidence supporting the role of sleep in the consolidation of newly acquired memories (The memory function of sleep. Nature Rev. Neurosci. 11, 114–126 (2010)
• Correspondence: Slow-wave sleep takes the leading role in memory reorganization
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(3):218 (2010)
  We recently proposed a comprehensive framework for sleep-dependent memory consolidation suggesting that, during slow-wave sleep (SWS), memory representations are transferred from a temporary to a long-term store and thereby undergo reorganization in a process of system consolidation (The memory function of sleep. Nature Rev. Neurosci. 11, 114–126 (2010)
• Corrigendum: CART peptides: regulators of body weight, reward and other functions
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(3):218 (2010)
  In figure 4a of the article, the doses of the bilateral CART (cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript) peptide infusions were incorrectly given in milligrams. In both the figure and the legend, the doses should be 0.0, 1.0 or 2.5 μg per side.

Hot off the presses! Feb 01

The Feb 01 issue of the is now up on Pubget (About ): if you're at a subscribing institution, just click the link in the latest link at the home page. (Note you'll only be able to get all the PDFs in the issue if your institution subscribes to Pubget.)

Latest Articles Include:

• From the editors
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(2):71 (2010)
  In order to maintain proper brain function, neural activity often needs to be tightly coordinated within neuronal ensembles and across different brain regions. In this issue, three articles highlight new concepts that help to explain the functional importance of this coordination and how it is achieved.
• Synaptogenesis: A new partner for neurexins
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(2):72 (2010)
  Synapse formation is driven by a host of different cell adhesion molecules. One of the most recent to be identified is leucine-rich repeat transmembrane neuronal protein 2 (LRRTM2).
• Neural coding: Predictive power
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(2):73 (2010)
  Recording from populations (ensembles) of neurons is a popular approach for researchers aiming to understand neural coding. But how well does neuronal ensemble activity predict the activity of individual neurons?
• Axon guidance: A developmental switch
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(2):73 (2010)
  Several axon guidance molecules can exert either attractive or repulsive actions on neurons depending on the neuron type, age or signalling pathway that they trigger. For example, the intracellular levels of cyclic AMP, which decrease as neurons mature, determine whether netrin 1 and myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG) induce attraction or repulsion towards a target.
• Neurodegenerative disorders: Reconnect with microRNA
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(2):74 (2010)
  Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive neurological disease that is associated with degeneration of motor neurons, causing muscle atrophy and, ultimately, paralysis. There is currently no treatment for ALS, but Williams et al.
• Neurodegeneration: Export disrupts transport
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(2):74 (2010)
  In many demyelinating diseases neurons show axonal damage and impaired axonal transport. However, it is not established whether there is a causal link between the two and what the molecular mechanism underlying such a link might be.
• Neuronal Networks: A hub of activity
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(2):74 (2010)
  During development, coordinated activation of neuronal assemblies is essential for the establishment of proper network wiring. Theoretically, a few highly connected neurons with long-ranging connectivity, called 'hub neurons', would be the most efficient way to orchestrate network-wide synchronicity, but the existence of such cells had not been proven.
• In brief: Visual system, Neuropeptides, Social neuroscience, Neurodegenerative disease
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(2):75 (2010)
  Direct rod input to cone BCs and direct cone input to rod BCs challenge the traditional view of mammalian BC circuitry Pang, J. -J.et al. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 107, 395–400 (2010)
• Fear: A window of opportunity
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(2):76 (2010)
  Although fear is an adaptive response, inappropriate or excessive levels of fear can be maladaptive and lead to anxiety disorders. Consequently, much research has been dedicated to finding strategies for reducing or preventing the formation of fear memories.
• In brief: Sensory systems, Neuronal networks, Addiction, Consciousness
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(2):76 (2010)
  State dependence of olfactory perception as a function of taste cortical inactivation Fortis-Santiago, Y.et al. Nature Neurosci.20 Dec 2009 (doi: 10.1038/nn.2463)
• Emerging roles of Wnts in the adult nervous system
  Inestrosa NC Arenas E - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(2):77 (2010)
  The roles of the Wnt signalling pathway in several developmental processes, including synaptic differentiation, are well characterized. The expression of Wnt ligands and Wnt signalling components in the mature mammalian CNS suggests that this pathway might also play a part in synaptic maintenance and function. In fact, Wnts have a crucial role in synaptic physiology, as they modulate the synaptic vesicle cycle, the trafficking of neurotransmitter receptors and the interaction of these receptors with scaffold proteins in postsynaptic regions. In addition, Wnts participate in adult neurogenesis and protect excitatory synaptic terminals from amyloid-β oligomer toxicity. Here, the latest insights into the function of Wnt signalling in the adult nervous system and therapeutic opportunities for neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease are discussed.
• Astroglial networks: a step further in neuroglial and gliovascular interactions
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(2):87 (2010)
  Dynamic aspects of interactions between astrocytes, neurons and the vasculature have recently been in the neuroscience spotlight. It has emerged that not only neurons but also astrocytes are organized into networks. Whereas neuronal networks exchange information through electrical and chemical synapses, astrocytes are interconnected through gap junction channels that are regulated by extra- and intracellular signals and allow exchange of information. This intercellular communication between glia has implications for neuroglial and gliovascular interactions and hence has added another level of complexity to our understanding of brain function.
• Abnormal neural oscillations and synchrony in schizophrenia
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(2):100 (2010)
  Converging evidence from electrophysiological, physiological and anatomical studies suggests that abnormalities in the synchronized oscillatory activity of neurons may have a central role in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Neural oscillations are a fundamental mechanism for the establishment of precise temporal relationships between neuronal responses that are in turn relevant for memory, perception and consciousness. In patients with schizophrenia, the synchronization of beta- and gamma-band activity is abnormal, suggesting a crucial role for dysfunctional oscillations in the generation of the cognitive deficits and other symptoms of the disorder. Dysfunctional oscillations may arise owing to anomalies in the brain's rhythm-generating networks of GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid) interneurons and in cortico-cortical connections.
• The memory function of sleep
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(2):114 (2010)
  Sleep has been identified as a state that optimizes the consolidation of newly acquired information in memory, depending on the specific conditions of learning and the timing of sleep. Consolidation during sleep promotes both quantitative and qualitative changes of memory representations. Through specific patterns of neuromodulatory activity and electric field potential oscillations, slow-wave sleep (SWS) and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep support system consolidation and synaptic consolidation, respectively. During SWS, slow oscillations, spindles and ripples — at minimum cholinergic activity — coordinate the re-activation and redistribution of hippocampus-dependent memories to neocortical sites, whereas during REM sleep, local increases in plasticity-related immediate-early gene activity — at high cholinergic and theta activity — might favour the subsequent synaptic consolidation of memories in the cortex.
• The free-energy principle: a unified brain theory?
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(2):127 (2010)
  A free-energy principle has been proposed recently that accounts for action, perception and learning. This Review looks at some key brain theories in the biological (for example, neural Darwinism) and physical (for example, information theory and optimal control theory) sciences from the free-energy perspective. Crucially, one key theme runs through each of these theories — optimization. Furthermore, if we look closely at what is optimized, the same quantity keeps emerging, namely value (expected reward, expected utility) or its complement, surprise (prediction error, expected cost). This is the quantity that is optimized under the free-energy principle, which suggests that several global brain theories might be unified within a free-energy framework.
• Centenary of Brodmann's map — conception and fate
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(2):139 (2010)
  Rarely in the history of neuroscience has a single illustration been as influential as the cytoarchitectonic map of the human brain published by Korbinian Brodmann in his monograph from 1909. The map presents the segregation of the cerebral cortex into 43 areas, as visible in cell body-stained histological sections. More importantly, Brodmann provided a comparative neuroanatomical approach and discussed ontogenetic and pathological aspects as well as structural–functional correlations. One hundred years later, a large number of neuroscientists still use Brodmann's map for localizing neuroimaging data obtained in the living human brain.

Hot off the presses! Jan 01

The Jan 01 issue of the is now up on Pubget (About ): if you're at a subscribing institution, just click the link in the latest link at the home page. (Note you'll only be able to get all the PDFs in the issue if your institution subscribes to Pubget.)

Latest Articles Include:

• From the editors
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(1):1 (2010)
  The establishment of neural circuits during development and their constant fine-tuning during maturation and adulthood require the nervous system to be highly adaptive.Correlated network activity is thought to be required for the development of neural circuits.
• Addiction: Cannabis against heroin?
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(1):3 (2010)
  Relapse after addictive-drug withdrawal is a big societal problem and is thought to be induced by environmental cues. The identification of treatments that attenuate cue-induced relapse is one aim of addiction research.
• Neurodegenerative disease: Synergistic destruction
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(1):4 (2010)
  The pathology of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by amyloid plaques (aggregates of amyloid-β (Aβ)) and fibrillar tangles (aggregates of tau). Mitochondrial dysfunction has also been recognized as being part of the AD pathology, but the mechanisms underlying this dysfunction are poorly understood.
• Neuronal migration: Cadherin keeps order
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(1):4 (2010)
  Cadherins are adhesion molecules with important roles in CNS development. Köster and colleagues now report in PLoS Biology that N-cadherin (also known as cadherin 2) is required for maintaining cell–cell contacts and cell polarity in granule cells (GCs) during directional migration.
• Evolution: Talking about FOXP2
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(1):5 (2010)
  The use of language is a uniquely human characteristic; however, the molecular changes that led to the evolution of human speech are largely unknown. Konopka et al.FOXP2), a transcription factor that is important for speech, alter the neuronal expression of a panel of genes, providing insight into the contribution of this protein to the development of speech.
• Circadian rhythms: Cycling vesicles for a cycling SCN
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(1):5 (2010)
  The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus controls the circadian rhythmicity of many physiological processes through clock genes that are expressed in a cyclical fashion. The products of these genes in turn regulate the daily expression of many other genes.
• Synaptic plasticity: Plasticity moves upstream
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(1):6 (2010)
  Neuronal activity can increase or decrease the strength of synapses between two neurons through long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD), respectively. Now, Poo and colleagues show that, in vivo, LTP and LTD can spread to the upstream synapse.
• Neurological disorders: Inhibition: too much of a good thing?
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(1):6 (2010)
  Absence seizures, characterized by a spike and wave discharge (SWD) pattern in thalamocortical networks, occur in many types of epilepsy. The cellular mechanisms underlying these seizures are unclear; however, a new paper by Cope et al.
• In brief: Synapse formation, Learning and memory, Neurological disorders, Development
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(1):6 (2010)
  Thrombospondin 1 accelerates synaptogenesis in hippocampal neurons through neuroligin 1 Xu, J.et al. Nature Neurosci.15 Nov 2009 (doi:10.1038/nn.2459)
• In brief: Chemosensation, Gap junctions, Fear, Visual system
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(1):7 (2010)
  Structural requirements for the activation of vomeronasal sensory neurons by MHC peptides Leinders-Zufall, T.et al. Nature Neurosci. 12, 1551–1558 (2009)
• Sex differences in molecular neuroscience: from fruit flies to humans
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(1):9 (2010)
  A plethora of discoveries relating to sex influences on brain function is rapidly moving this field into the spotlight for most areas of neuroscience. The domain of molecular or genetic neuroscience is no exception. The goal of this article is to highlight key developments concerning sex-based dimorphisms in molecular neuroscience, describe control mechanisms regulating these differences, address the implications of these dimorphisms for normal and abnormal brain function and discuss what these advances mean for future work in the field. The overriding conclusion is that, as for neuroscience in general, molecular neuroscience has to take into account potential sex influences that might modify signalling pathways.
• Mechanisms underlying spontaneous patterned activity in developing neural circuits
  Blankenship AG Feller MB - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(1):18 (2010)
  Patterned, spontaneous activity occurs in many developing neural circuits, including the retina, the cochlea, the spinal cord, the cerebellum and the hippocampus, where it provides signals that are important for the development of neurons and their connections. Despite there being differences in adult architecture and output across these various circuits, the patterns of spontaneous network activity and the mechanisms that generate it are remarkably similar. The mechanisms can include a depolarizing action of GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid), transient synaptic connections, extrasynaptic transmission, gap junction coupling and the presence of pacemaker-like neurons. Interestingly, spontaneous activity is robust; if one element of a circuit is disrupted another will generate similar activity. This research suggests that developing neural circuits exhibit transient and tunable features that maintain a source of correlated activity during crucial stages of development.
• The cerebellar microcircuit as an adaptive filter: experimental and computational evidence
  Dean P Porrill J Ekerot CF Jörntell H - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(1):30 (2010)
  Initial investigations of the cerebellar microcircuit inspired the Marr–Albus theoretical framework of cerebellar function. We review recent developments in the experimental understanding of cerebellar microcircuit characteristics and in the computational analysis of Marr–Albus models. We conclude that many Marr–Albus models are in effect adaptive filters, and that evidence for symmetrical long-term potentiation and long-term depression, interneuron plasticity, silent parallel fibre synapses and recurrent mossy fibre connectivity is strikingly congruent with predictions from adaptive-filter models of cerebellar function. This congruence suggests that insights from adaptive-filter theory might help to address outstanding issues of cerebellar function, including both microcircuit processing and extra-cerebellar connectivity.
• Neural reorganization following sensory loss: the opportunity of change
  Merabet LB Pascual-Leone A - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(1):44 (2010)
  There is growing evidence that sensory deprivation is associated with crossmodal neuroplastic changes in the brain. After visual or auditory deprivation, brain areas that are normally associated with the lost sense are recruited by spared sensory modalities. These changes underlie adaptive and compensatory behaviours in blind and deaf individuals. Although there are differences between these populations owing to the nature of the deprived sensory modality, there seem to be common principles regarding how the brain copes with sensory loss and the factors that influence neuroplastic changes. Here, we discuss crossmodal neuroplasticity with regards to behavioural adaptation after sensory deprivation and highlight the possibility of maladaptive consequences within the context of rehabilitation.
• Advances in visual perceptual learning and plasticity
  Sasaki Y Nanez JE Watanabe T - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(1):53 (2010)
  Visual perceptual learning (VPL) is defined as a long-term improvement in performance on a visual task. In recent years, the idea that conscious effort is necessary for VPL to occur has been challenged by research suggesting the involvement of more implicit processing mechanisms, such as reinforcement-driven processing and consolidation. In addition, we have learnt much about the neural substrates of VPL and it has become evident that changes in visual areas and regions beyond the visual cortex can take place during VPL.
• Neurotalk: improving the communication of neuroscience research
  Illes J Moser MA McCormick JB Racine E Blakeslee S Caplan A Hayden EC Ingram J Lohwater T McKnight P Nicholson C Phillips A Sauvé KD Snell E Weiss S - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(1):61 (2010)
  There is increasing pressure for neuroscientists to communicate their research and the societal implications of their findings to the public. Communicating science is challenging, and the transformation of communication by digital and interactive media increases the complexity of the challenge. To facilitate dialogue with the public in this new media landscape, we suggest three courses of action for the neuroscience community: a cultural shift that explicitly recognizes and rewards public outreach, the identification and development of neuroscience communication experts, and ongoing empirical research on the public communication of neuroscience.

Hot off the presses! Apr 01 Nature Reviews Neuroscience

The Apr 01 issue of the Nature Reviews Neuroscience is now up on Pubget (About Nature Reviews Neuroscience): if you're at a subscribing institution, just click the link in the latest link at the home page. (Note you'll only be able to get all the PDFs in the issue if your institution subscribes to Pubget.)

Latest Articles Include:

• From the editors
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(4):219 (2010)
  In this issue, we publish four articles in fields of neuroscience that have sparked controversy.Whether astrocytes exocytose neurotransmitters and therefore directly influence information processing in neurons has been the subject of heated debate for almost two decades.
• Synaptic plasticity: Polymerize and learn?
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(4):221 (2010)
  Activity-dependent changes at the synapse require protein synthesis in order to persist for extended periods and to contribute to the formation of long-term memories. However, the proteins involved in the stabilization of synaptic changes are largely unknown.
• Neurogenesis: In the zone
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(4):222 (2010)
  An expansion of cerebral cortex size during human evolution is thought to underlie our unique cognitive abilities; however, little is known about the developmental mechanisms that mediated the dramatic growth of the human cortex. Kriegstein and colleagues have now characterized a population of radial-glia-like cells in the developing human brain that may distinguish cortical growth in primates from that in other species.
• In brief: Neural stem cells, Circadian rhythms, Learning and memory, Apoptosis
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(4):222 (2010)
  Communication via gap junctions underlies early functional and beneficial interactions between grafted neural stem cells and the host Jäderstad , J.et al. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA10 February 2010 (doi: 10.1037/pnas.0915134107)
• Addictive drugs: Benzodiazepine's hook
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(4):223 (2010)
  Benzodiazepines exert rapid anxiolytic effects by increasing GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid)-mediated neurotransmission. However, their use in treating anxiety disorders is limited owing to the loss of control of consumption after prolonged use.
• Synaptic plasticity: Pulling power of CAMK2α
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(4):223 (2010)
  Synaptic plasticity relies in part on protein degradation by proteasomes, which move from the dendritic shaft to spines and are activated following synaptic excitation. Sheng and colleagues now shed light on the molecular mechanisms that underlie proteasome redistribution and reveal that Ca2+–calmodulin-dependent protein kinase 2α (CAMK2α) acts as a scaffold for proteasomes at synapses.
• Endocannabinoids: Going retro with DAGLα
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(4):224 (2010)
  One of the main endocannabinoids (eCBs) in the CNS is 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), which can be synthesized from diacylglycerol by diacylglycerol lipase-α (DAGLα) and DAGLβ. The extent to which these two enzymes contribute to 2-AG synthesis in the brain was unknown, but two recent papers show that DAGLα is essential for 2-AG synthesis and endocannabinoid signalling in the brain.
• Genes and disease: Chromatin on the brain
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(4):224 (2010)
  Several proteins that modulate chromatin structure have been implicated in human developmental disorders, some of which share phenotypic features. Now the finding that three of these disease-associated proteins interact at a subset of imprinted genes suggests overlapping molecular mechanisms in syndromes that affect brain development.
• Psychiatric disorders: From the cradle
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(4):224 (2010)
  Normal brain function depends on the appropriate formation of neuronal networks during development. Genetic susceptibility factors to psychiatric disorders have been postulated to act by introducing slight perturbations to this neurodevelopmental programme that may lead to the manifestation of symptoms later in life.
• In brief: Neurotransmission, Techniques, Prions, Ion channels
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(4):225 (2010)
  Doc2b is a high-affinity Ca2+ sensor for spontaneous neurotransmitter release Groffen , A. J.et al. Science11 Feb 2010 (doi: 10.1126/science.1183765)
• Do astrocytes really exocytose neurotransmitters?
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(4):227 (2010)
  In the past 20 years, an extra layer of information processing, in addition to that provided by neurons, has been proposed for the CNS. Neuronally evoked increases of the intracellular calcium concentration in astrocytes have been suggested to trigger exocytotic release of the 'gliotransmitters' glutamate, ATP and D-serine. These are proposed to modulate neuronal excitability and transmitter release, and to have a role in diseases as diverse as stroke, epilepsy, schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease and HIV infection. However, there is intense controversy about whether astrocytes can exocytose transmitters in vivo. Resolving this issue would considerably advance our understanding of brain function.
• Modelling the molecular mechanisms of synaptic plasticity using systems biology approaches
  - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(4):239 (2010)
  Synaptic plasticity is thought to underlie learning and memory, but the complexity of the interactions between the ion channels, enzymes and genes that are involved in synaptic plasticity impedes a deep understanding of this phenomenon. Computer modelling has been used to investigate the information processing that is performed by the signalling pathways involved in synaptic plasticity in principal neurons of the hippocampus, striatum and cerebellum. In the past few years, new software developments that combine computational neuroscience techniques with systems biology techniques have allowed large-scale, kinetic models of the molecular mechanisms underlying long-term potentiation and long-term depression. We highlight important advancements produced by these quantitative modelling efforts and introduce promising approaches that use advancements in live-cell imaging.
• Mapping the face in the somatosensory brainstem
  Erzurumlu RS Murakami Y Rijli FM - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(4):252 (2010)
  The facial somatosensory map in the cortex is derived from facial representations that are first established at the brainstem level and then serially 'copied' at each stage of the somatosensory pathway. Recent studies have provided insights into the molecular mechanisms involved in the development of somatotopic maps of the face and whiskers in the trigeminal nuclei of the mouse brainstem. This work has revealed that early molecular regionalization and positional patterning of trigeminal ganglion and brainstem target neurons are established by homeodomain transcription factors, the expression of which is induced and maintained by signals from the brain and face. Such position-dependent information is fundamental in transforming the early spatial layout of sensory receptors into a topographic connectivity map that is conferred to higher brain levels.
• The functional role of the parieto-frontal mirror circuit: interpretations and misinterpretations
  Rizzolatti G Sinigaglia C - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(4):264 (2010)
  The parieto-frontal cortical circuit that is active during action observation is the circuit with mirror properties that has been most extensively studied. Yet, there remains controversy on its role in social cognition and its contribution to understanding the actions and intentions of other individuals. Recent studies in monkeys and humans have shed light on what the parieto-frontal cortical circuit encodes and its possible functional relevance for cognition. We conclude that, although there are several mechanisms through which one can understand the behaviour of other individuals, the parieto-frontal mechanism is the only one that allows an individual to understand the action of others 'from the inside' and gives the observer a first-person grasp of the motor goals and intentions of other individuals.
• Myelination and the trophic support of long axons
  Nave KA - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(4):275 (2010)
  In addition to their role in providing myelin for rapid impulse propagation, the glia that ensheath long axons are required for the maintenance of normal axon transport and long-term survival. This presumably ancestral function seems to be independent of myelin membrane wrapping. Here, I propose that ensheathing glia provide trophic support to axons that are metabolically isolated, and that myelin itself might cause such isolation. This glial support of axonal integrity may be relevant for a number of neurological and psychiatric diseases.
• Neuromarketing: the hope and hype of neuroimaging in business
  Ariely D Berns GS - Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11(4):284 (2010)
  The application of neuroimaging methods to product marketing — neuromarketing — has recently gained considerable popularity. We propose that there are two main reasons for this trend. First, the possibility that neuroimaging will become cheaper and faster than other marketing methods; and second, the hope that neuroimaging will provide marketers with information that is not obtainable through conventional marketing methods. Although neuroimaging is unlikely to be cheaper than other tools in the near future, there is growing evidence that it may provide hidden information about the consumer experience. The most promising application of neuroimaging methods to marketing may come before a product is even released — when it is just an idea being developed.